Introduction to Atomic and Nuclear Physics

One Foundations of Atomic and Nuclear Physics.- 1 Atoms, Ions, and Electrons.- 1-1 Introduction.- 1-2 The Avogadro Number.- 1-3 The Avogadro Number and the Electronic Charge.- 1-4 Atomic Masses.- 1-5 Brownian Motion.- 1-6 Vertical Distribution of Particles.- 1-7 Displacement of Particles in Brownian Motion.- 1-8 Determination of the Charge of an Electron.- 1-9 Electric Discharge through Gases.- 1-10 Determination of e/m for Cathode Rays.- 1-11 Mass of an Electron.- 2 The Special Theory of Relativity.- 2-1 Introduction.- 2-2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment.- 2-3 Newtonian Relativity; Inertial Systems.- 2-4 Fundamental Postulates of Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity.- 2-5 The Einstein-Lorentz Transformations.- 2-6 Relativity of Length.- 2-7 Relativity of Time.- 2-8 Relative Velocity.- 2-9 Momentum and Energy in Special Relativity.- 2-10 Conservation of Momentum and Energy.- 2-11 Rest Energy, Kinetic Energy, and Total Energy.- 2-12 Relativistic Mass.- 2-13 Relativity and Gravitation.- 3 The Nuclear Atom.- 3-1 Discovery of Natural Radioactivity.- 3-2 Radiation Emitted by Radioactive Substances.- 3-3 Determination of Q/M for Alpha Particles.- 3-4 Nature of the Alpha Particles.- 3-5 Velocities of the Alpha Particles.- 3-6 Rutherford’s Nuclear Theory of the Atom.- 3-7 Single Scattering of Alpha Particles by Thin Foils.- 3-8 Experimental Verification of Rutherford’s Nuclear Theory of the Atom.- 3-9 Nuclear Sizes: Radii.- 3-10 Nuclear Cross Section.- 3-11 Isotopic Masses.- 3-12 Isotopic Masses and the Constitution of Nuclei.- 3-13 Mass of a Nucleus.- 3-14 Energy and Mass Units.- 4 Some Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation.- 4-1 The Nature of Light.- 4-2 Radiation from an Accelerated Charge.- 4-3 Polarization of Light.- 4-4 Circular and Elliptic Polarization.- 4-5 Blackbody Radiation.- 4-6 The Planck Radiation Law.- 4-7 Einstein’s Derivation of Planck’s Radiation Law.- 4-8 Photoelectric Effect.- 4-9 Velocity of the Photoelectrons.- 4-10 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation.- 4-11 Photoelectrons and Conduction Electrons.- 4-12 Phototubes.- 4-13 Pressure and Momentum of Radiation.- 4-14 Angular Momentum of Radiation.- 5 X-Rays.- 5-1 Discovery of X-Rays.- 5-2 Production of X-Rays.- 5-3 Measurement of the Intensity of X-Rays.- 5-4 Diffraction of X-Rays.- 5-5 Single Crystal X-Ray Spectrometer.- 5-6 The Grating Space of Rocksalt Crystals.- 5-7 Typical X-Ray Spectra.- 5-8 Continuous X-Ray Spectra.- 5-9 Wavelengths of Gamma Rays.- 5-10 X-Ray Powder Crystal Diffraction.- 5-11 Refraction of X-Rays.- 5-12 Measurement of X-Ray Wavelengths by Ruled Gratings.- 5-13 Absorption of X-Rays.- 5-14 Atomic Absorption Coefficient.- 5-15 Scattering of X-Rays.- 5-16 Determination of the Number of Electrons per Atom.- 5-17 Polarization of X-Rays.- 5-18 Intensity of Scattered X-Rays.- 5-19 The Compton Effect.- 5-20 Compton Recoil Electrons.- 6 Waves and Particles 153 6-1 De Brogue’s Hypothesis.- 6-2 Electron Diffraction Experiments of Davisson and Germer.- 6-3 Electron Diffraction Experiments of G. P. Thomson.- 6-4 Waves Associated with Atoms and Molecules.- 6-5 Diffraction of Neutrons.- 6-6 Velocity of De Broglie Waves.- 6-7 Wave and Group Velocities.- 6-8 Group Velocity and Particle Velocity.- 6-9 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.- 6-10 Probability Concept.- 6-11 Schroedinger’s Equation for a Single Particle.- 6-12 Electron Optics.- 7 Elements of Quantum Mechanics.- 7-1 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics.- 7-2 The Infinite Square Well.- 7-3 Expectation Values for the Infinite Square Well.- 7-4 The Free Particle.- 7-5 The Step Potential.- 7-6 The Harmonic Oscillator.- 7-7 The Square Well in Three Dimensions.- 7-8 Selection Rules.- 7-9 Penetration of a Potential Barrier.- Two The Extranuclear Structure of the Atom.- 8 The Hydrogen Atom.- 8-1 Historical Survey.- 8-2 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom.- 8-3 Motion of the Hydrogen Nucleus.- 8-4 The Schroedinger Solution of the Hydrogen Atom.- 8-5 Interpretation of the Schroedinger Solution.- 8-6 Selection Rules for Hydrogen.- 8-7 Electronic Orbits of Hydrogen.- 8-8 The Correspondence Principle.- 8-9 Elliptic Orbits for Hydrogen.- 9 Optical Spectra and Electronic Structure.- 9-1 Introduction.- 9-2 Optical Spectral Series.- 9-3 Vector Model of the Atom: Orbital Angular Momentum.- 9-4 Electron Spin.- 9-5 Total Angular Momentum Vector.- 9-6 Magnetic Moment of an Orbital Electron.- 9-7 Magnetic Moment due to Spin.- 9-8 Magnetic Quantum Numbers.- 9-9 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.- 9-10 Distribution of Electrons in an Atom.- 9-11 Spectral Notation.- 9-12 Spectrum of Sodium.- 9-13 Absorption of Energy.- 9-14 The Zeeman Effect.- 9-15 Explanations of the Normal Zeeman Effect.- 9-16 The Landé g Factor.- 9-17 The Anomalous Zeeman Effect.- 9-18 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment and Electron Spin.- 9-19 Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Energy Levels.- 9-20 Spectra of Two-Electron Atoms.- 9-21 The Laser.- 10 X-Ray Spectra.- 10-1 Characteristic X-Ray Spectra.- 10-2 X-Ray Energy-Level Diagram.- 10-3 X-Ray Absorption Spectra.- 10-4 X-Ray Critical Voltages.- 10-5 Magnetic Spectrograph.- 10-6 X-Ray Terms and Selection Rules.- 10-7 Radiationless Transitions—Auger Effect.- 10-8 Production of Characteristic X-Ray Spectra.- 11 Selected Applications of Quantum Physics.- 11-1 Introduction.- 11-2 Molecular Physics.- 11-3 Statistical Mechanics.- 11-4 Blackbody Radiation.- 11-5 Specific Heat of Solids.- 11-6 Free Electrons in Metals.- 11-7 The Band Theory of Conduction-Electrons.- 11-8 Josephson Effect.- Three Nuclear Physics.- 12 Particle Accelerators.- 12-1 Introduction.- 12-2 Electrostatic Accelerators.- 12-3 The Cyclotron.- 12-4 The Betatron.- 12-5 Linear Accelerators.- 12-6 Frequency-Modulated Cyclotron.- 12-7 Electron Synchrotron.- 12-8 Proton Synchrotron.- 13 Beam Transport and Detecting Devices.- 13-1 Introduction.- 13-2 Bending Magnets.- 13-3 Quadrupole Magnets.- 13-4 Velocity Spectrometers.- 13-5 Photographic Emulsions.- 13-6 Gas-Filled Detectors.- 13-7 Scintillation Counters and Solid-State Detectors.- 13-8 Cerenkov Counters.- 13-9 Cloud Chambers.- 13-10 Bubble Chambers.- 13-11 Principles of Particle Indentification.- 14 Radioactivity.- 14-1 Résumé of Some Known Properties of Nuclei.- 14-2 Natural Radioactive Transformations.- 14-3 The Curie.- 14-4 Radioactive Series.- 14-5 The Neptunium Series.- 14-6 Branching.- 14-7 Nuclear Isomers.- 14-8 Radioactive Isotopes of the Lighter Elements.- 14-9 Alpha-Particle Disintegration Energy.- 14-10 Range of Alpha Particles.- 14-11 Alpha Decay.- 14-12 Beta-Ray Spectra.- 14-13 Beta Decay.- 14-14 Gamma-Decay.- 14-15 Selection Rules for Gamma Decay.- 14-16 Isomeric States.- 14-17 Resonance Absorption of Gamma Rays.- 14-18 The Moessbauer Effect.- 14-19 Application of Moessbauer Effect to General Relativity.- 15 Nuclear Reactions.- 15-1 Introduction.- 15-2 Discovery of Artificial Disintegration.- 15-3 The (?p) Reaction.- 15-4 Discovery of the Neutron.- 15-5 The (?n) Reaction.- 15-6 Discovery of the Positron.- 15-7 Discovery of Artificial or Induced Radioactivity.- 15-8 Induced Beta Decay.- 15-9 Simple Alpha-Particle Capture; Radiative Capture.- 15-10 Disintegrations by Proton Bombardment.- 15-11 Disintegration by Deuteron Bombardment.- 15-12 Disintegration of Nuclei by Photons.- 15-13 Disintegration by Neutron Bombardment.- 15-14 Radioactive Decay of the Neutron.- 15-15 Electron Capture by Nuclei.- 16 Fission and Fusion of Nuclei.- 16-1 Discovery of Nuclear Fission.- 16-2 Fission of Uranium.- 16-3 Energies of the Fission Fragments.- 16-4 Some Products of Nuclear Fission.- 16-5 Neutrons from Thermal Fission of 235U.- 16-6 Energy of Neutrons from Thermal Fission of 235U.- 16-7 Delayed Neutron Emission by Fission Fragments.- 16-8 Transuranic Elements—Neptunium and Plutonium.- 16-9 Photofission of Nuclei.- 16-10 Ternary Fission.- 16-11 Spontaneous Fission.- 16-12 Fission of Heavy Nuclei.- 16-13 Fission of Lighter Nuclei.- 16-14 Fission Chain Reaction.- 16-15 Processes within a Reactor.- 16-16 Types of Nuclear Reactors.- 16-17 Transuranic Elements.- 16-18 Stellar Energy of Nuclear Origin.- 16-19 Stellar Evolution.- 16-20 Fusion of Light Nuclei.- 17 Nuclear Processes.- 17-1 Stability of Nuclei.- 17-2 Nuclear Spins.- 17-3 Nuclear Magnetic Moments—Molecular Beam Method.- 17-4 Nuclear Induction and Resonance Absorption.- 17-5 Orbital Angular Momentum of the Deuteron.- 17-6 Nuclear Models.- 17-7 Properties of the Compound Nucleus.- 17-8 Formation of a Compound Nucleus.- 17-9 Nuclear Shell Structure.- 17-10 Beta Decay.- 17-11 Comparative Half-Lives for Beta Decay.- 17-12 Evidence for the Neutrino.- 17-13 Rest Mass of the Neutrino.- 17-14 Intermediate-Energy Nuclear Reactions.- 17-15 Charge Distribution in Nuclei.- 18 Fundamental Particles.- 18-1 The Four Forces.- 18-2 The Discovery of the Meson.- 18-3 Properties of Muons and Pions.- 18-4 Cosmic Rays.- 18-5 Primary Cosmic-Ray Particles.- 18-6 Antiparticles.- 18-7 The Concepts of Parity and Time-Reversal.- 18-8 Nonconservation of Parity in Beta Decay.- 18-9 Nonconservation of Parity in Meson Decays.- 18-10 Longitudinal Polarization of Beta Particles.- 18-11 Neutrinos and Their Interactions.- 18-12 K Mesons.- 18-13 Hyperons.- 18-14 Antibaryons.- 18-15 The Classification of Particles.- 18-16 Selection Rules.- 18-17 Resonances.- 18-18 Unitary Symmetry.- 18-19 Frontiers.- Appendixes.- I Physical Constants and Conversion Factors The Greek Alphabet.- II Atomic Weights of the Elements.- III Periodic Table of the Elements.- IV Table of Nuclear Properties 655 V-1 Review of Vector Notation.- V-2 Displacement Equation for Brownian Motion.- V-3 Path of an Alpha Particle in a Coulomb Field of Force.- V-4 Derivation of the Equations for the Compton Effect.- V-6 Quantum Mechanrcal Solution of the Harmonic Oscillator.- V-8 Derivation of the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein Distributions.- V-9 Probability Density Functions.- Answers to Selected Problems.