Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Degenerative Disease Prevention

Contributors xv
<p>Preface xvii</p>
<p>About the Editors xix</p>
<p>1 Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Disease Prevention: A Window to the Future of Health Promotion 3<br /> Gopinadhan Paliyath and Kalidas Shetty</p>
<p>1.1 Chronic Degenerative Diseases in Modern Society: Implications on Life Quality, Productivity, Economic Burden 3</p>
<p>1.1.1 Diet and lifestyle changes: the missing foods 3</p>
<p>1.1.2 Social and economic burden of chronic degenerative diseases 4</p>
<p>1.2 Health Regulatory Properties of Foods: Prevention Is Better Than Cure 5</p>
<p>1.2.1 Fruit and vegetable consumption and disease prevention 6</p>
<p>References 8</p>
<p>2 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 11<br /> Chung–Ja C. Jackson and Gopinadhan Paliyath</p>
<p>2.1 Introduction 11</p>
<p>2.2 Definition of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 12</p>
<p>2.2.1 Effects of functional foods and nutraceuticals on major chronic diseases 16</p>
<p>2.3 Sources and Biological Effects of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals in Nature 19</p>
<p>2.3.1 Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) 20</p>
<p>2.3.2 Phytoestrogens 21</p>
<p>2.3.3 Tomatoes 21</p>
<p>2.3.4 Garlic (Allium sativum) 21</p>
<p>2.3.5 Cruciferous vegetables 22</p>
<p>2.3.6 Citrus fruits 22</p>
<p>2.3.7 Cranberry 23</p>
<p>2.3.8 Tea 23</p>
<p>2.3.9 Wine and grapes 24</p>
<p>2.3.10 Chocolate 24</p>
<p>2.3.11 Fish 25</p>
<p>2.3.12 Dairy products 25</p>
<p>2.3.13 Carbohydrates 26</p>
<p>2.3.14 Meat 26</p>
<p>2.3.15 Vitamins 26</p>
<p>2.3.16 Minerals 27</p>
<p>2.4 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Health Claims and Benefits 27</p>
<p>2.4.1 Oats 27</p>
<p>2.4.2 Psyllium 27</p>
<p>2.4.3 Soybeans 28</p>
<p>2.4.4 Phytosterols 29</p>
<p>2.4.5 Fiber 29</p>
<p>2.4.6 D–Tagatose 29</p>
<p>2.5 Qualifi ed Health Claims 29</p>
<p>2.5.1 Selenium and cancer 29</p>
<p>2.5.2 Antioxidant vitamins and cancer 30</p>
<p>2.5.3 Nuts (e.g., walnuts) and heart disease 30</p>
<p>2.5.4 Omega–3 fatty acids and CHD 30</p>
<p>2.5.5 Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylcholine and cognitive dysfunction and dementia 30</p>
<p>2.5.6 Folic acid and neural tube birth defects 30</p>
<p>2.6 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Safety Issues 30</p>
<p>2.6.1 Echinacea 31</p>
<p>2.6.2 Ephedra (also called ma huang, herbal ecstasy, or mahuanggen ) 31</p>
<p>2.6.3 Feverfew 31</p>
<p>2.6.4 Garlic 31</p>
<p>2.6.5 Ginger 32</p>
<p>2.6.6 Gingko biloba 32</p>
<p>2.6.7 Ginseng 32</p>
<p>2.6.8 Kava kava products 32</p>
<p>2.6.9 St. John s Wort 32</p>
<p>2.7 Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 33</p>
<p>2.8 Public Education and Dietary Guidance 35</p>
<p>2.9 Concluding Remarks 36</p>
<p>References 37</p>
<p>3 Nutritional Genomics: Fundamental Role of Diet in Chronic Disease Prevention and Control 45<br /> Amy J. Tucker, Branden Deschambault, and Marica Bakovic</p>
<p>3.1 Introduction 45</p>
<p>3.2 Nutrigenetics 46</p>
<p>3.2.1 Gene polymorphisms 46</p>
<p>3.2.2 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) 47</p>
<p>3.2.3 Nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) 47</p>
<p>3.2.4 Regulatory single nucleotide polymorphisms (rSNPs) 48</p>
<p>3.2.5 Splice site single nucleotide polymorphisms (ssSNPs) 48</p>
<p>3.2.6 Trans–Acting rSNPs 48</p>
<p>3.3 Complexities of chronic disease research in nutrigenetics 49</p>
<p>3.4 Chronic Disease and Rare SNPs 50</p>
<p>3.4.1 Copy number variants 50</p>
<p>3.5 CVD and Nutrigenetics 51</p>
<p>3.6 Nutrigenetics and Cancer 51</p>
<p>3.7 Summary of Nutrigenetic Research Potential 51</p>
<p>3.8 Nutriepigenetics 52</p>
<p>3.8.1 Role of the epigenome 52</p>
<p>3.8.2 Cause of epimutations 52</p>
<p>3.9 Epimutations in Chronic Disease 53</p>
<p>3.9.1 Epimutations and macronutrients/micronutrients 53</p>
<p>3.9.2 Epimutations and phytochemicals 54</p>
<p>3.10 Summary of Epigenetic Research Potential 54</p>
<p>3.11 Nutrigenomics 54</p>
<p>3.11.1 Genomic impact of diet 55</p>
<p>3.11.2 Carbohydrates and gene interactions 55</p>
<p>3.12.3 Cholesterol and gene interactions 56</p>
<p>3.11.4 FAs, lipids, and gene interactions 58</p>
<p>3.11.5 Lipids and APOE 59</p>
<p>3.11.6 Diet and APOE 60</p>
<p>3.11.7 Lipids and hepatic lipase (HL) 60</p>
<p>3.11.8 Diet and LIPC 61</p>
<p>3.11.9 Interaction between APOE and HL 61</p>
<p>3.12 Vitamin A and Gene Interactions 61</p>
<p>3.12.1 Dual roles of vitamin A 62</p>
<p>3.13 Vitamin E and Nutrigenomics 62</p>
<p>3.13.1 Vitamin E and atherosclerosis 62</p>
<p>3.13.2 Vitamin E and cholesterol biosynthesis 63</p>
<p>3.14 Vitamin D and Gene Interactions 63</p>
<p>3.14.1 Vitamin D and breast cancer 63</p>
<p>3.14.2 Vitamin D and FAs 64</p>
<p>3.15 Phytoestrogens and Gene Interactions 64</p>
<p>3.15.1 Phytoestrogens and breast cancer 64</p>
<p>3.15.2 Phytoestrogens and lipid, glucose metabolism 64</p>
<p>3.16 Phytosterols and Gene Interactions 65</p>
<p>3.16.1 Phytosterols and cholesterol metabolism 65</p>
<p>3.16.2 Phytosterols and cancer 65</p>
<p>3.17 Polyphenols and Gene Interactions 65</p>
<p>3.17.1 Polyphenols and CVD 65</p>
<p>3.17.2 Polyphenols and cancer 66</p>
<p>3.18 Nutrigenomics Summary: Advantages, Limitations, Future 66</p>
<p>3.19 Conclusions 67</p>
<p>References 67</p>
<p>4 Nutraceuticals and Antioxidant Function 75<br /> Denise Young, Rong Tsao, and Yoshinori Mine</p>
<p>4.1 Introduction 75</p>
<p>4.2 Oxidative Stress and ROS 75</p>
<p>4.2.1 Endogenous sources of ROS 76</p>
<p>4.2.2 Exogenous sources of ROS 77</p>
<p>4.3 Antioxidants and Antioxidative Defense Systems 77</p>
<p>4.3.1 Endogenous antioxidants and antioxidative defenses 77</p>
<p>4.3.2 Dietary antioxidants 79</p>
<p>4.4 Phytochemicals 79</p>
<p>4.4.1 Polyphenols 80</p>
<p>4.4.2 Amides 85</p>
<p>4.4.3 Carotenoids 86</p>
<p>4.4.4 Mechanism of antioxidant action 87</p>
<p>4.5 Antioxidant Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins 90</p>
<p>4.6 Mechanism of Action of Antioxidant and Antioxidative Stress Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins 91</p>
<p>4.6.1 Amino acids 91</p>
<p>4.6.2 Peptides and proteins 91</p>
<p>4.7 Production of Antioxidant Peptides 95</p>
<p>4.8 Recent Advances in Analytical Techniques for Measuring Antioxidant Capacity and Oxidative Damage 96</p>
<p>4.8.1 Chemical antioxidant capacity assay 96</p>
<p>4.8.2 Cell–based antioxidant assays 99</p>
<p>4.9 Health Benefi ts of Nutraceutical Antioxidants 101</p>
<p>4.9.1 Evidence of antioxidant efficacy in disease states 101</p>
<p>4.9.2 Failure of antioxidants to demonstrate efficacy 102</p>
<p>4.10 Conclusion 102</p>
<p>References 103</p>
<p>5 Composition and Chemistry of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Infl uence on Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability 113<br /> Jissy K. Jacob and Gopinadhan Paliyath</p>
<p>5.1 Introduction 113</p>
<p>5.2 Polyphenols as Antioxidants 115</p>
<p>5.2.1 Free radicals and endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms 115</p>
<p>5.2.2 Diet and exogenous antioxidants (flavonoids) 115</p>
<p>5.2.3 Antioxidant properties of flavonoids 117</p>
<p>5.3 Antioxidant Activity of Anthocyanins 118</p>
<p>5.4 Anthocyanin Biosynthesis and Localization 119</p>
<p>5.5 Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Polyphenols 121</p>
<p>5.6 Microstructural Characteristics of Grape Juice 122</p>
<p>5.7 Physicochemical Properties of the Dialyzed Juice Fraction 123</p>
<p>5.8 Ultrastructural Analysis of Juice Fractions 124</p>
<p>5.9 Composition of Juice Fractions 126</p>
<p>5.10 Antioxidant Activity of Juice Fractions 129</p>
<p>5.11 Metabolism and Bioavailability of Flavonoids 132</p>
<p>5.12 Dietary Polyphenols and Prevention of Diseases 135</p>
<p>5.12.1 Polyphenols and cardiovascular diseases 135</p>
<p>5.12.2 Polyphenols and cancer 136</p>
<p>5.13 Increasing Health Benefi cial Properties of Juices 137</p>
<p>References 139</p>
<p>6 Cruciferous Vegetable–Derived Isothiocyanates and Cancer Prevention 147<br /> Ravi P. Sahu and Sanjay K. Srivastava</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 147</p>
<p>6.2 Metabolism of Xenobiotics 149</p>
<p>6.3 ITCs and Inhibition of Cancer 150</p>
<p>6.3.1 Pancreatic cancer 150</p>
<p>6.3.2 Brain cancer 152</p>
<p>6.3.3 Prostate cancer 152</p>
<p>6.3.4 Lung cancer 154</p>
<p>6.3.5 Breast cancer 155</p>
<p>6.3.6 Colon cancer 156</p>
<p>6.3.7 Hepatic cancer 156</p>
<p>6.3.8 Bladder cancer 157</p>
<p>6.3.9 Multiple myeloma (MM) 158</p>
<p>6.3.10 Head and neck squamous cancer 159</p>
<p>6.3.11 Ovarian cancer 159</p>
<p>6.3.12 Skin cancer 160</p>
<p>Acknowledgments 161</p>
<p>References 161</p>
<p>7 The Disease–Preventive Potential of Some Popular and Underutilized Seeds 171<br /> Rajeev Bhat</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 171</p>
<p>7.2 Oil Seeds and Their Therapeutic Potential 172</p>
<p>7.2.1 Nigella seeds (Nigella sativa L.) 172</p>
<p>7.2.2 Sunfl ower seed (Helianthus annuus L.) 172</p>
<p>7.2.3 Groundnut seed (Arachis hypogea L.) 183</p>
<p>7.2.4 Sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum L.) 184</p>
<p>7.2.5 Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) 184</p>
<p>7.2.6 Saffl ower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 184</p>
<p>7.2.7 Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) 185</p>
<p>7.3 Spice Seeds as Medicine 185</p>
<p>7.3.1 Coriander seeds (Coriandrum satium L.) 185</p>
<p>7.3.2 Caraway (Cumin carvi L.) 186</p>
<p>7.3.3 Pepper seeds (Piper nigrum L.) 186</p>
<p>7.3.4 Cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum L.) 186</p>
<p>7.3.5 Fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum–graecum L.) 187</p>
<p>7.4 Legumes and Medicinal Use 187</p>
<p>7.4.1 Soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) 187</p>
<p>7.4.2 Mucuna pruriens L. 188</p>
<p>7.4.3 Tamarind seeds (Tamaridus indica L.) 188</p>
<p>7.5 Underutilized Seeds 189</p>
<p>7.5.1 Perilla (Perilla frutescens [Hassk.]) 189</p>
<p>7.5.2 Hunteria umbellata ([K. Schum] Hallier f.) 189</p>
<p>7.5.3 Microula sikkimensis (Hemsl.) 189</p>
<p>7.5.4 Chinese chive seeds (Allium tuberosum Rottl.) 190</p>
<p>7.5.5 Grape seeds (Vitis vinifera L.) 190</p>
<p>7.5.6 Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita sp.) 191</p>
<p>7.5.7 Horse chestnut seeds (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) 192</p>
<p>7.6 Future Outlook 192</p>
<p>References 193</p>
<p>8 Effects of Carotenoids and Retinoids on Immune–Mediated Chronic Inflammation in Infl ammatory Bowel Disease 213<br /> Hua Zhang, Ming Fan, and Gopinadhan Paliyath</p>
<p>8.1 Introduction 213</p>
<p>8.2 Carotenoids 213</p>
<p>8.3 IBDs 214</p>
<p>8.4 Phytochemicals and Downregulation of IBD 215</p>
<p>8.4.1 Antioxidative capacity of carotenoids to reduce oxidative stress generated from inflammation 215</p>
<p>8.4.2 Immune–modulating activity of carotenoids 216</p>
<p>8.5 Effects of Carotenoids on Immune Genetic Mechanism of IBD 221</p>
<p>8.5.1 Potential role of retinoid receptors in attenuation of inflammatory diseases 222</p>
<p>8.5.2 Modulation of inflammatory responses through activation of nuclear receptors containing RXR heterodimers 223</p>
<p>8.6 Effects of Retinoids and Carotenoids on the Oxidative Stress Signaling Pathway 226</p>
<p>References 229</p>
<p>9 Ruminant Trans Fat as Potential Nutraceutical Components to Prevent Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease 235<br /> Ye Wang, Catherine J. Field, and Spencer D. Proctor</p>
<p>9.1 Introduction 235</p>
<p>9.2 c9,t11–CLA Isomer and Health Implications 237</p>
<p>9.2.1 CLA modulates carcinogenesis 237</p>
<p>9.3 Mechanisms of CLA Action on Cancer 245</p>
<p>9.4 CLA Modulates CHD Risk Factors 245</p>
<p>9.5 Mechanisms of CLA Action on CHD 246</p>
<p>9.6 Vaccenic Acid 252</p>
<p>9.6.1 VA modulates carcinogenesis 253</p>
<p>9.6.2 VA modulates CVD risk factors 253</p>
<p>9.7 Dairy Fat Enriched with VA and CLA 254</p>
<p>9.7.1 Enriched dairy fat modulates carcinogenesis 254</p>
<p>9.7.2 Enriched dairy fat modulates CVD risk factors 255</p>
<p>9.8 Discussion 255</p>
<p>References 256</p>
<p>10 Nanotechnology for Cerebral Delivery of Nutraceuticals for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases 263<br /> Jasjeet Kaur Sahni, Sihem Doggui, L&eacute; Dao, and Charles Ramassamy</p>
<p>10.1 Introduction 263</p>
<p>10.2 Oxidative Stress in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and AD 264</p>
<p>10.3 Efficacy of Selected Components of Nutraceutical Compounds in the Amyloid Cascade and in the Prevention of AD 266</p>
<p>10.4 Targeted NPs for Delivery of Bioactives Compounds from Foods for the Treatment of AD 272</p>
<p>10.4.1 Catechins coupled with NPs 272</p>
<p>10.4.2 NPs targeted with ApoE containing curcumin 273</p>
<p>10.4.3 Resveratrol–loaded NPs protect againt A&szlig;–induced toxicity 275</p>
<p>10.5 Conclusion 275</p>
<p>References 275</p>
<p>11 Cancer Prevention by Polyphenols: Influence on Signal Transduction and Gene Expression 285<br /> Fatima Hakimuddin and Gopinadhan Paliyath</p>
<p>11.1 Introduction 285</p>
<p>11.2 Genetic Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis 285</p>
<p>11.3 Biochemical Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis 287</p>
<p>11.3.1 Pathways and signals involved in neoplastic cell transformation and carcinogenesis 287</p>
<p>11.3.2 Extracellular signal transduction 288</p>
<p>11.3.3 Intracellular signal transduction 289</p>
<p>11.4 Signaling Pathways in Breast Cancer 291</p>
<p>11.4.1 Calcium homeostasis and signaling 292</p>
<p>11.4.2 Role of calcium in regulating cell proliferation and cell cycle 293</p>
<p>11.4.3 Regulation of the cell cycle by calmodulin 293</p>
<p>11.4.4 Calcium signaling and cell death 293</p>
<p>11.4.5 Mitochondria, calcium signaling, and apoptosis 294</p>
<p>11.5 Cancer Prevention and Therapy 294</p>
<p>11.5.1 Targeted therapies 294</p>
<p>11.5.2 Phytochemicals and cancer prevention 296</p>
<p>11.6 Grapes and Red Wine as a Dietary Source of Polyphenols 298</p>
<p>11.6.1 Health benefi ts of red wine 298</p>
<p>11.6.2 Modulation of signaling pathways by fl avonoids 306</p>
<p>11.7 Genetic Approach: Identifi cation of Flavonoid Mediated&nbsp;Molecular Targets 308</p>
<p>11.8 Estrogen Metabolism, Breast Cancer, and Flavonoids 311</p>
<p>11.9 Polyphenols and Estrogen Signaling 312</p>
<p>References 313</p>
<p>12 Potato Herb Synergies as Food Designs for Hyperglycemia and Hypertension Management 325<br /> Fahad Saleem, Ali Hussein Eid, and Kalidas Shetty</p>
<p>12.1 Introduction 325</p>
<p>12.2 Phenolic–Enriched Chilean Potato and Select Species of Apiaceae and Lamiaceae Families in Diet 327</p>
<p>12.3 Combination of Potato with Seeds and/or Herbs for Hypertension and Hyperglycemia Management 331</p>
<p>12.3.1 Chilean potato (Solanum tuberosum ssp. tubersocum L.) 331</p>
<p>12.3.2 Apiaceae family 333</p>
<p>12.3.3 Lamiaceae family 335</p>
<p>12.4 Conclusions: Combining the Chilean Potato with Seeds and Herbs from the Apiaceae and Lamiaceae Families 336</p>
<p>References 338</p>
<p>13 Fermentation–Based Processing of Food Botanicals for Mobilization of Phenolic Phytochemicals for Type 2 Diabetes Management 341<br /> Chandrakant Ankolekar and Kalidas Shetty</p>
<p>13.1 Introduction 341</p>
<p>13.2 Diabetes: The Rising Burden 342</p>
<p>13.3 Fermentation and Health: A Historical Perspective 342</p>
<p>13.4 Fermentation: Adding Value 343</p>
<p>13.4.1 Preservation of food through acid/alcohol formation 343</p>
<p>13.4.2 Enrichment of food substrates through formation of micro and macro nutrients 344</p>
<p>13.4.3 Flavor, aroma, and texture development 344</p>
<p>13.4.4 Detoxification of substrates during fermentation 345</p>
<p>13.5 Phenolic Antioxidants and Diabetes Management 345</p>
<p>13.6 Microbial Aerobic Growth and Fermentation and Its Anti–Diabetes Potential by Phenolic and Antioxidant Mobilization 346</p>
<p>13.6.1 Solid State Growth (SSG) 346</p>
<p>13.6.2 Liquid state (submerged) fermentation 347</p>
<p>13.7 Fruit Juice Fermentation for Healthy Food Ingredients for Management of Type 2 Diabetes 348</p>
<p>13.7.1 Apple juice fermentation 348</p>
<p>13.7.2 Pear juice fermentation 349</p>
<p>13.7.3 Cherry juice fermentation 349</p>
<p>13.8 Summary 350</p>
<p>References 351</p>
<p>14 Postharvest Strategies to Enhance Bioactive Ingredients for Type 2 Diabetes Management and Heart Health 357<br /> Dipayan Sarkar and Kalidas Shetty</p>
<p>14.1 Introduction 357</p>
<p>14.2 Changing Dietary Patterns: A Historical Perspective 357</p>
<p>14.3 Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases: Era of New Global Epidemics 358</p>
<p>14.4 Healthy Diet: Prevention Is Better Than Cure 360</p>
<p>14.4.1 Fruits and vegetables: from garden of eden to modern horticulture 360</p>
<p>14.5 Bioactive Ingredients 361</p>
<p>14.6 Dietary Polyphenols: Impact on Human Health 362</p>
<p>14.6.1 Role of polyphenols in glucose metabolism 362</p>
<p>14.6.2 Polyphenols and cardiovascular disease 364</p>
<p>14.7 Phenolic Biosynthesis: Biological Mechanism to Improve Dietary Polyphenols in Plant Models 365</p>
<p>14.8 Postharvest Strategies to Improve Bioactive Ingredients in Fruits and Vegetables 367</p>
<p>14.8.1 Temperature 367</p>
<p>14.8.2 Light and oxygen 368</p>
<p>14.8.3 Chemical treatment and natural compounds 368</p>
<p>14.9 Phenolic–Linked Antioxidant Activity During Postharvest Stages in Fruits and Relevance for Type 2 Diabetes 369</p>
<p>14.10 Future Direction of Research: When Functional Food and Diet Become Panacea 370</p>
<p>14.10.1 Stage 1: physiology and growth during germination to maturity 370</p>
<p>14.10.2 Stage 2: postharvest management 371</p>
<p>14.10.3 Stage 3: food processing 371</p>
<p>14.10.4 Stage 4: biotechnological tools 372</p>
<p>14.10.5 Stage 5: in vitro studies 372</p>
<p>14.10.6 Stage 6: animal, clinical, and epidemiological studies 372</p>
<p>14.10.7 Stage 7: marketing, awareness, and education 373</p>
<p>14.11 Conclusions 373</p>
<p>References 373</p>
<p>15 Enhancing Functional Food Ingredients in Fruits and Vegetables 381<br /> Shaila Wadud and Gopinadhan Paliyath</p>
<p>15.1 Introduction 381</p>
<p>15.2 Strategies for Nutritional Enhancement 382</p>
<p>15.3 Improving the Mineral Content of Plant Foods 383</p>
<p>15.3.1 Iron and zinc 384</p>
<p>15.4 Improving the Antioxidants Content of Plant Foods 385</p>
<p>15.4.1 Lycopene and &szlig;–carotene 385</p>
<p>15.4.2 Vitamin E 387</p>
<p>15.4.3 Flavonoids 387</p>
<p>15.5 Improving the Amino Acid Content of Proteins of Plant Foods 389</p>
<p>15.6 Improving the Fatty Acid Composition of Plant Seed Oil 390</p>
<p>15.7 Influence of Processing and Storage in the Nutritive Value of Plant Foods 391</p>
<p>15.7.1 Processing of plant oils 391</p>
<p>15.7.2 Processing of fruits and vegetables 391</p>
<p>References 392</p>
<p>Index 395</p>