Molecular Beam Epitaxy

Background Information.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1 Thin, Film Growth from Beams in a High Vacuum Environment.- 1.1.1 Vacuum Conditions for MBE.- 1.1.2 Basic Physical Processes in the MBE Vacuum Chamber.- 1.2 Evolution of the MBE Technique.- 1.2.1 Early Stages of MBE.- 1.2.2 MBE in the 1980s.- 1.2.3 MBE in the 1990s.- 1.3 Modifications of the MBE Technique.- 1.3.1 Gas Source MBE.- 1.3.2 Modulated-Beams MBE.- 1.3.3 FIBI-MBE Processing Technology.- 1.3.4 Guide to the MBE Literature.- Technological Equipment.- 2. Sources of Atomic and Molecular Beams.- 2.1 Effusion Process and the Ideal Effusion Cell.- 2.1.1 Langmuir and Knudsen Modes of Evaporation.- 2.1.2 Cosine Law of Effusion.- 2.2 Effusion from Real Effusion Cells.- 2.2.1 Near-Ideal Cylindrical Effusion Cell.- 2.2.2 Cylindrical Channel Effusion Cell.- 2.2.3 Hot-Wall Beam Cylindrical Source.- 2.2.4 Conical Effusion Cell.- 2.3 Effusion Cells Used in Solid Source MBE Systems.- 2.3.1 Conventional Effusion Cells.- 2.3.2 Dissociation (Cracker) Effusion Cells.- 2.3.3 Electron Beam and Laser Radiation Heated Sources.- 2.4 Beam Sources Used in GS MBE Systems.- 2.4.1 Arsine and Phosphine Gas Source Crackers.- 2.4.2 Gas Sources Used in MO MBE.- 3. High-Vacuum Growth and Processing Systems.- 3.1 Building Blocks of Modular MBE Systems.- 3.1.1 Cassette Entry Stage.- 3.1.2 Interstage Substrate Transfer System.- 3.1.3 Preparation and Analysis Stages.- 3.1.4 MBE Deposition Chamber.- 3.1.5 Beam Sources.- 3.1.6 Monitoring and Analytical Facilities.- 3.2 Multiple-Growth and Multiple-Process Facilities in MBE Systems.- 3.2.1 Hot-Wall Beam Epitaxy Growth System.- 3.2.2 Focused Ion Beam Technology.- Characterization Methods.- 4. Characterization Techniques.- 4.1 RHEED.- 4.1.1 Fundamentals of Electron Diffraction.- 4.1.2 Origin of RHEED Features.- 4.1.3 RHEED Data from Reconstructed Semiconductor Surfaces.- 4.1.4 RHEED Rocking Curves.- 4.1.5 RHEED Intensity Oscillations.- 4.1.6 Microprobe RHEED.- 4.2 Optical Characterization Techniques.- 4.2.1 Ellipsometry.- 4.2.2 Reflectance-Difference Spectroscopy.- 4.2.3 Laser Interferometry.- 4.3 Postgrowth Characterization Methods.- 4.3.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy.- 4.3.2 X-ray Diffraction.- 4.3.3 Photoluminescence.- 4.3.4 Electrical Characterization.- 4.3.5 Scanning Probe Microscopy.- 4.3.6 Sophisticated Characterization Methods.- MBE Growth Process.- 5. MBE Growth Processes of Lattice-Matched Structures.- 5.1 General View of the MBE Growth Process.- 5.1.1 Equilibrium States in MBE.- 5.1.2 Relations Between Substrate and Epilayer.- 5.2 Growth Mechanisms in Lattice-Matched MBE.- 5.2.1 Growth on Nominally-Oriented Substrates.- 5.2.2 Growth on Vicinal Surfaces.- 5.2.3 Growth Interruption Effects.- 5.3 Modulated Beams Growth Techniques.- 5.3.1 UHV Atomic Layer Epitaxy.- 5.3.2 Migration Enhanced Epitaxy.- 5.3.3 Molecular Layer Epitaxy.- 5.3.4 Miscellany on Modulated Beams Growth Techniques.- 5.4 Doping During MBE Processes.- 5.4.1 Unintentional Doping.- 5.4.2 Thermodynamics of Doping by Co-Deposition.- 5.4.3 Delta-Function-Like Doping Profiles.- 5.4.4 In-Growth Doping with Ionized Beams.- 6. Growth Processes in Strained-Layer MBE.- 6.1 Critical Thickness.- 6.1.1 Theoretical Treatment.- 6.1.2 MBE-Related Experimental Data.- 6.2 Surface Kinetic Effects.- 6.2.1 Idea of Surfactants.- 6.2.2 MBE Growth with Surfactants.- 6.2.3 Self-organization Effects.- 6.3 Multilayer Structures as Buffers.- 6.3.1 Strained-Layer Superlattices.- 6.3.2 Digital Alloy Composition Grading Technique.- 7. Material-Related Growth Characteristics in MBE.- 7.1 Si and IV-IV Heterostructures.- 7.1.1 Si Substrate Preparation Procedures.- 7.1.2 MBE Growth of Si Films.- 7.1.3 Heteroepitaxy of Ge and Sn on Si Substrates.- 7.1.4 GexSi1-x/Si Heterostructures and Superlattices.- 7.1.5 Devices Grown by Si MBE.- 7.2 GaAs- and As-Containing Compounds.- 7.2.1 Preparation of the GaAs(100) Substrate Surface.- 7.2.2 Growth of GaAs on GaAs(100) Substrates.- 7.2.3 Growth of AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs Heterostructures.- 7.2.4 Growth of GaAs on Si Substrates.- 7.2.5 Device Structures Grown by GaAs MBE.- 7.3 Narrow-Gap II-VI Compounds Containing Hg.- 7.3.1 Substrates for MBE of Hg Compounds.- 7.3.2 Hg-Compound Heterostructures Grown by MBE.- 7.3.3 Device Structures.- Conclusion.- 8. Outlook.- 8.1 Miscellaneous Material Systems Grown by MBE.- 8.2 MBE-Related Growth Techniques.- 8.3 Development Trends of the MBE Technique.- 8.4 Further Readings on MBE Fundamentals.- 8.4.1 Growth Phenomena.- 8.4.2 Layered Structures of Different Material Systems.- References.