Microbial Pathogenesis: Infection and Immunity

<p>1. The Complement System as a Viral Ta rget</p><p>for Immune Evasion................................................................................1</p><p>Ajitanuj Rattan, Rewati Kasbe, Jayati Mullick and Arvind Sahu</p><p>Abstract......................................................................................................................................... 1</p><p>Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1</p><p>Role of Complement in Combating Viruses............................................................................... 2</p><p>Complement Evasion by Viruses: Diverse Strategies................................................................ 6</p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 17</p><p>2. Modulation of Type I Interferon Response</p><p>by RNA Viruses..........................................................................................28</p><p>Suchita Bhattacharyya</p>Abstract....................................................................................................................................... 28<p><p>Introduction................................................................................................................................ 28</p><p>RNA Viruses............................................................................................................................... 29</p><p>Type I Interferon System............................................................................................................ 31</p><p>Modulation of Type I Interferon Response by RNA Viruses.................................................. 31</p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 33</p>3. Viroporins: Differential Functions at Late Stages</p><p>of Viral Life Cycles.............................................................................38</p><p>Francois Kien, Huailiang Ma, Stefan Díaz Gaisenband and Béatrice Nal</p><p>Abstract....................................................................................................................................... 38</p><p>Introduction................................................................................................................................ 38</p><p>Molecular Organizations and Ion Channel Activities of IAV M2,</p><p>SARS‑CoV E, HCV p7 and HIV‑ 1 Vpu Viroporins......................................................... 42</p>Differential Roles of Viroporins during Virus Morphogenesis and Release.......................... 46<p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 53</p><p>xviii Contents</p><p>4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis:</p><p>Innate Immune Recognition</p><p>and Persistence......................................................................................63</p><p><p>Mycobacterium tuberculosis:</p><p>Innate Immune Recognition</p><p>and Persistence......................................................................................63</p><p>Munirah Abdul‑Aziz and Anthony G. Tsolaki</p><p>Abstract....................................................................................................................................... 63</p><p>Introduction................................................................................................................................ 63</p><p>Initial Stages of M. tuberculosis Infection................................................................................. 64</p><p>Macrophage Involvement and M. tuberculosis Persistence..................................................... 69</p><p>Granuloma Formation and M. tuberculosis Persistence......................................................... 70</p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 73</p><p><p><p><p>M. tuberculosis Infection................................................................................. 64</p><p>Macrophage Involvement and M. tuberculosis Persistence..................................................... 69</p><p>Granuloma Formation and M. tuberculosis Persistence......................................................... 70</p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 73</p><p><p><p>M. tuberculosis Persistence..................................................... 69</p><p>Granuloma Formation and M. tuberculosis Persistence......................................................... 70</p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 73</p><p><p>M. tuberculosis Persistence......................................................... 70</p><p>Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 73</p><p>5. Candida and Candidiasis............................................................................82</p>Candida and Candidiasis............................................................................82<p>Thomas Höfken</p><p>Abstract....................................................................................................................................... 82</p><p>Introduction................................................................................................................................ 82</p><p>Medically Important Candida Species...................................................................................... 83</p><p>Pathogenicity Mechanisms......................................................................................................... 83</p><p>Experimental Systems to Study Candidiasis............................................................................ 84</p><p>Adherence................................................................................................................................... 85</p>Invasion....................................................................................................................................... 86<p><p>Secreted Hydrolytic Enzymes.................................................................................................... 87</p><p>Polymorphism............................................................................................................................ 88</p><p><p>Candida Species...................................................................................... 83</p><p>Pathogenicity Mechanisms......................................................................................................... 83</p><p>Experimental Systems to Study Candidiasis............................................................................ 84</p><p>Adherence................................................................................................................................... 85</p><p>Invasion....................................................................................................................................... 86</p><p>Secreted Hydrolytic Enzymes.................................................................................................... 87</p><p>Polymorphism............................................................................................................................ 88</p><p>Biofilm Formation...................................................................................................................... 92</p><p>Interaction with Bacteria........................................................................................................... 95</p><p>Phenotypic Switching and Mating............................................................................................. 96</p><p>Metabolic Flexibility and Nutrition Acquisition...................................................................... 96</p><p>Stress Adaptation....................................................................................................................... 97</p><p>Host Responses........................................................................................................................... 98</p><p>Antifungal Drugs and Drug Resistance.................................................................................... 99</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 100</p><p><p>...................................................................................................................... 92</p><p>Interaction with Bacteria........................................................................................................... 95</p><p>Phenotypic Switching and Mating............................................................................................. 96</p><p>Metabolic Flexibility and Nutrition Acquisition...................................................................... 96</p>Stress Adaptation....................................................................................................................... 97<p><p>Host Responses........................................................................................................................... 98</p><p>Antifungal Drugs and Drug Resistance.................................................................................... 99</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 100</p><p>6. Mechanisms of Pathogenesis</p><p>of Aspergillosis...................................................................................115</p><p>Savneet Kaur, Kavita Kale, Taruna Madan and P. Usha Sarma</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 115</p><p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 115</p><p>Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis (IPA)................................................................................. 116</p><p>Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA)................................................................ 127</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 132</p><p>Contents xix</p><p>7. Airway Epithelium Interactions</p><p>with ASPERGILLUS fumigatus.........................................................138</p>ASPERGILLUS fumigatus.........................................................138<p>Neelkamal Chaudhary</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 138</p><p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 138</p><p>Airway Epithelium Interaction with A. fumigatus................................................................. 139</p><p>Toll‑Like Receptors................................................................................................................... 140</p><p>Non‑TLR Receptors.................................................................................................................. 142</p>Other Antimicrobial Mechanisms........................................................................................... 143<p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 144</p><p><p>A. fumigatus................................................................. 139</p><p>Toll‑Like Receptors................................................................................................................... 140</p><p>Non‑TLR Receptors.................................................................................................................. 142</p><p>Other Antimicrobial Mechanisms........................................................................................... 143</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 144</p><p>8. Anti‑Fungal Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses.............149</p><p>Uday Kishore, Suhair M. Abozaid and Mohammed N. Al‑Ahdal</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 149</p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 150<p><p>Innate Immune Mediated Defense against Fungi.................................................................. 151</p><p>Adaptive Immunity and Fungal Pathogens............................................................................ 156</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 159</p><p>9. Host‑pa thogen interaction in Malaria</p><p>and Trypa nosomiasis.........................................................................167</p><p>Janez Ferluga, Annapurna Nayak, and Uday Kishore</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 167</p><p>Introduction: Malaria, Background and Life Cycle of the Parasite.................................... 168</p><p>Malaria Immunity and Chronicity Development.................................................................. 170</p><p>Complement Involvement........................................................................................................ 174</p><p>PfEMP1: Virulence and Pathogenesis Modulation................................................................ 175</p><p>Cerebral Malaria...................................................................................................................... 176</p><p>Placental Malaria...................................................................................................................... 177</p><p><p>EMP1: Virulence and Pathogenesis Modulation................................................................ 175</p>EMP1: Virulence and Pathogenesis Modulation................................................................ 175<p>Cerebral Malaria...................................................................................................................... 176</p><p>Placental Malaria...................................................................................................................... 177</p><p>P. falciparum Anaemia.............................................................................................................. 178</p><p>A Role of Red Cell Blood Groups in Malaria Virulence Modulaton.................................... 179</p><p>Merozoite Erythrocyte Invasion.............................................................................................. 179</p><p>Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT)................................................................................ 180</p><p>Parasite Life Cycle.................................................................................................................... 181</p>HAT Pathogenesis.................................................................................................................... 182<p><p>Evasion of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by Trypanosome............................................... 184</p><p>Potential Involvement of the Complement System................................................................ 185</p><p>Genetic HAT and Host Diversity and Disease Phenotypes................................................... 186</p><p>American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)........................................................................ 187</p><p><p>Anaemia.............................................................................................................. 178</p>Anaemia.............................................................................................................. 178<p>A Role of Red Cell Blood Groups in Malaria Virulence Modulaton.................................... 179</p><p>Merozoite Erythrocyte Invasion.............................................................................................. 179</p><p>Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT)................................................................................ 180</p><p>Parasite Life Cycle.................................................................................................................... 181</p><p>HAT Pathogenesis.................................................................................................................... 182</p><p>Evasion of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by Trypanosome............................................... 184</p><p>Potential Involvement of the Complement System................................................................ 185</p><p>Genetic HAT and Host Diversity and Disease Phenotypes................................................... 186</p>American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)........................................................................ 187<p><p>T. cruzi Life Cycle...................................................................................................................... 188</p><p>Cell Invasion............................................................................................................................. 188</p><p>Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease............................................................................................... 188</p><p>Chronic Chagas Disease........................................................................................................... 189</p><p>Role of Adipose Tissue.............................................................................................................. 190</p><p>Cytokine Expression and Regulaton....................................................................................... 190</p><p>Complement and Immune Evasion......................................................................................... 191</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 192</p><p><p>Life Cycle...................................................................................................................... 188</p></p><p>T. cruzi Life Cycle...................................................................................................................... 188</p><p>Cell Invasion............................................................................................................................. 188</p><p>Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease............................................................................................... 188</p><p>Chronic Chagas Disease........................................................................................................... 189</p><p>Role of Adipose Tissue.............................................................................................................. 190</p><p>Cytokine Expression and Regulaton....................................................................................... 190</p><p>Complement and Immune Evasion......................................................................................... 191</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 192</p><p><p>Life Cycle...................................................................................................................... 188</p>Life Cycle...................................................................................................................... 188<p>Cell Invasion............................................................................................................................. 188</p>Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease............................................................................................... 188<p><p>Chronic Chagas Disease........................................................................................................... 189</p><p>Role of Adipose Tissue.............................................................................................................. 190</p><p>Cytokine Expression and Regulaton....................................................................................... 190</p><p>Complement and Immune Evasion......................................................................................... 191</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 192</p><p>xx Contents</p><p>10. The Host Pathogen Interaction</p><p>and Immunomodulation During Leishmaniasis...............203</p><p>Surajit Bhattacharjee and Arijit Bhattacharya</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 203</p><p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 204</p><p>Initial Interaction and Phagocytosis....................................................................................... 205</p><p>Macrophage Functions Altered by Leishmania...................................................................... 206</p><p>Microbicidal Free Radical Production.................................................................................... 207</p><p>Impairment of Antigen Presentation....................................................................................... 208</p><p>Modulation of Cytokine Production........................................................................................ 209</p><p>Chemokine and Chemokine Receptors in Leishmaniasis..................................................... 211</p><p>Cytokine–Chemokine Networks in Leishmaniasis................................................................ 213</p><p><p>Leishmania...................................................................... 206</p><p>Microbicidal Free Radical Production.................................................................................... 207</p><p>Impairment of Antigen Presentation....................................................................................... 208</p><p>Modulation of Cytokine Production........................................................................................ 209</p><p>Chemokine and Chemokine Receptors in Leishmaniasis..................................................... 211</p>Cytokine–Chemokine Networks in Leishmaniasis................................................................ 213<p><p>Leishmania‑Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling......................................................... 214</p><p>Toll‑Like Receptors (TLRs)..................................................................................................... 220</p><p>Immune Responses against Leishmania Infection................................................................. 221</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 223</p><p><p><p>‑Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling......................................................... 214</p></p><p>Leishmania‑Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling......................................................... 214</p><p>Toll‑Like Receptors (TLRs)..................................................................................................... 220</p><p>Immune Responses against Leishmania Infection................................................................. 221</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 223</p><p><p><p>‑Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling......................................................... 214</p>‑Induced Alteration of Host Cell Signaling......................................................... 214<p>Toll‑Like Receptors (TLRs)..................................................................................................... 220</p><p>Immune Responses against Leishmania Infection................................................................. 221Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 223</p><p><p>Leishmania Infection................................................................. 221</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 223</p><p>11. Immune responses induced by pa rasitic worms....................233</p><p>Janez Ferluga, Lubna Kouser and Uday Kishore</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 233</p><p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 234</p><p>Helminth Type‑2 Immunity and Allergy................................................................................. 235</p><p>Hygiene Hypothesis on Allergies Increase.............................................................................. 237</p><p>Examples of Type 2 Immunity................................................................................................. 237</p><p>Tissue‑Parasite Variation in Type 2 Immunity....................................................................... 238</p><p>Potential Complement Involvement in Helminth and Autoimmunity................................. 240</p>Complement Evasion................................................................................................................ 242<p><p>Trichinellosis............................................................................................................................. 243</p><p>Filariasis.................................................................................................................................... 244</p><p>Taeniasis.................................................................................................................................... 245</p><p>Schistosomiasis......................................................................................................................... 246</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 247</p><p>12. Pathogenic Persistence and Evasion mechanisms</p><p>in Schistosomiasis...............................................................................255</p><p>Annapurna Nayak and Uday Kishore</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 255</p><p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 256</p><p>Life Cycle into Intermediate and Vector Host........................................................................ 257</p>Skin Penetration by Cercariae: Breaking the First Line of Defense.................................... 259<p><p>Modulation of the Host’s Immune Response.......................................................................... 260</p><p>Granulomas in Acute and Chronic Schistosomiasis.............................................................. 263</p><p>Contribution of Various Immune Cells in the Immunopathology....................................... 265</p><p>Complement Evasion by Schistosome Paramyosin............................................................... 265</p><p>Immune Modulation of the Snail............................................................................................. 267</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 270</p><p>Contents xxi</p><p>13. TRANSMISSIBLE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHIES—</p><p>Passage from Gut to Brain............................................................276</p><p>Daniel A. Mitchell</p><p>Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 276</p><p>Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 277</p>The Replication of Infectious Prions....................................................................................... 277<p><p>The Importance of the Gut in TSEs........................................................................................ 278</p><p>Prion Proliferation in Lymphoid Tissues................................................................................ 279</p><p>The Role of Dendritic Cells in Prion Trafficking................................................................... 279</p><p>The Role of the Complement System in Prion Disease.......................................................... 280</p><p>Prion Passage to the Brain and Neurocytoxicity.................................................................... 281</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 282</p><p><p>................................................................... 279</p><p>The Role of the Complement System in Prion Disease.......................................................... 280</p><p>Prion Passage to the Brain and Neurocytoxicity.................................................................... 281</p><p>Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 282</p>